Publisert av: Yngve Sætre | juli 24, 2012

Studiebrev fra Harvard 14/12


Boston, Cambridge, 23.07.12.

Utviklingen i Russland har vaert et av temaene i komparativ politikk i det siste, og noe av diskusjonen i klassen har gaatt paa om kultur er grunnen til at demokratiet har saa daarlige vekstvilkaar i Russland. Jeg faar meg ikke helt til aa tro at kulturen og mentaliteten i et land skal vaere grunnleggende antidemokratisk. Men det tar tid aa bygge et demokrati som fungerer. Institusjoner, politiske partier og et demokratisk tankesett skal paa plass, og dette er ikke gjort over natten. Tross alt er det bare litt over 20 aar siden Russland var endel av det kommunistiske Sovjet, og i historisk sammenheng er det kort tid. Hyperinflasjon paa 90-tallet bidro ogsaa sterkt til aa gi demokratiet i Russland en krevende start.

Her er noe av det jeg har bidratt med skriftlig i den interessante diskusjonen om Russland. Temaene er den oekonomiske utviklingen og strategien i Sovjet og Russland, og demokratiets tilbaketog i Russland:

«In the Soviet Union under Lenin and Stalin the property rights was taken away and agriculture was collectivized. This resulted in the collapse of agricultural production and 7 million lives were lost in the resulting famine (cases in comparative politics, p. 253).

Despite the tragic collapse of the agriculture the state industrialized rapidly in the first years of the Soviet system. The economy was growing and the standard of living increased. But in the 1960’s and onward the negative sides of this system started to show. The economic growth slowed down, and in the 1980’s Soviet was stagnating and falling behind western countries. (Cases in comparative politics, p. 253-254). The economic decline was a key course to the collapse of the Soviet Union.

After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 Russia, under the leadership of Boris Yeltsin, implemented a number of reforms in the 1990’s to privatize state assets and to free up market forces. This did not give any immediate positive result as it resulted in hyperinflation. Also the privatization process resulted in a concentration of wealth. A limited number of people with strong economical and political connections got very wealthy (Cases in comparative politics p. 275).

Putin became president in Russia in 1999, and under he’s leadership the political freedom has decreased while the economic growth has increased. The decrease in political freedom under Putin has lead to the growth of the state, and there is now 1, 5 million state employees. There has also been an increase in corruption and property rights have been undermined.  The state dominates many sectors among others the energy sector. Russia has also become less secure and less healthy under Putin, and there has been an increase in murder rates and alcohol consumption (The Myth of the Authoritarian Model). 

If you consider the limitations on the press, the concentration of power, and the way the elections are held in the Russia of today the country cannot be described as democratic.

Today the Russians are richer than ever before but the reason for this is largely the increase in oil prices. The increased energy revenues has allowed for the return to autocracy. Despite the growth in the economy the growth rates under Putin has been below the average among the post Soviet countries.  There is little doubt that corruption and the undermining of property rights will hinder economic growth in the long run. The Russian economy is growing, but if Russia had a democracy with property rights and free market the economy would grow much faster (The Myth of the Authoritarian Model).

I don’ t think the failed democratic consolidation in Russia was inevitable. I think a number of unfortunate circumstainces has given a failed democracy in Russia. The economic decline in the 90’s is maybe the single most important factor. After all «money talks» and people were dissapointed with the economy under Yeltsin. I also think it’ s a little to easy to blame it on the political leaders. I think that a major problem is that Russia have not developed any democratic framework and political parties with ideology and a political platform. How can you establish democracy if you don’t have ideological political parties that can attract potential political leaders and present visions for the future?» 

Yngve Saetre

Publisert av: Yngve Sætre | juli 23, 2012

Studiebrev fra Harvard 13/12


Boston, Cambridge, 22.07.12.

En uke til er gaatt her paa Harvard. Tiden gaar fort, og naa er det tre uker igjen av mitt opphold her.

Igaar tok jeg min foerste fridag fra studiene. Den ble brukt til en «John F. Kennedy – dag». Jeg og en medstudent tok turen til Boston sentrum der vi fikk en guidet «Kennedy tour» i Boston. Vi var innom flere sentrale steder, blant annet en statue av Kennedy foran delstatsparlamentet, bygningen hvor hans valgkamphovedkvarter var, to bygninger hvor han hadde bodd, samt Hotel Parker hvor han hadde pressekonferanser og fridde til Jackie.

Ifoelge guiden vaar var Kennedy en ganske userioes undergraduate student paa Harvard, men det forandret seg etter at han besøkte Europa i 1939. Da saa han hvordan krigen var iferd med aa utvikle seg, og han var blant annet tilstede i det britiske parlamentet naar britene erklaerte krig mot Tyskland. Turen hans til Europa resulterte i hovedoppgaven paa Harvard, som ble publisert under tittelen «Why England slept».

Guiden fortalte ogsaa om motsetningene mellom katolikker og protestanter i Boston, noe som var aarsaken til at Kennedyene tilslutt forlot Boston. Forholdene i Boston var ogsaa noe av bakgrunnen for hans engasjement i immigrasjonspolitikken, og guiden mente at nettopp immigrasjonslovene var den viktigste arven etter Kennedy. Disse lovene ble vedtatt etter at Kennedy døde, men de forandret USA.

Totalt sett var det ikke saa veldig mange aar John F. Kennedy bodde i Boston, men baade han og familien hadde sterke baand hit, og den siste offisielle adressen hans var i den ene bygningen vi saa i Boston.

Foroevrig ble vi informert om et betydelig byutviklingsprosjekt i Boston initiert av Edward Kennedy på 90- tallet. En stor veg som delte den gamle og den nye delen av byen ble fjernet og lagt i en tunnel under bakken, mens omraadet over ble utviklet til en flott park. Dette kostet utrolig mye penger, men Kennedy lot seg ikke stoppe av det og fikk det tilslutt igjennom, og naa er den gamle og den nye delen av byen bundet sammen igjen på en flott måte. Dette strategiske byutviklingsgrepet kan kanskje Elverum kommune la seg inspirere av?

Dagen ble avsluttet paa John F. Kennedy library and museum, som ligger vakkert plassert ved sjoeen med utsikt til Boston. Museet var interessant og bra, men kanskje noe mindre enn jeg hadde trodd og håpet paa forhaand. Likevel er det mulig jeg tar ennaa en liten tur dit foer jeg drar hjem.

Jeg fikk ogsaa tatt en telefon over til Norge igaar for aa gratulere min bror med bursdagen. Morsomt aa konstatere at telefonforbindelsen mellom Norge og USA er lydmessig bedre enn mellom Elverum og Oslo. Alt er ikke helt logisk her i verden.

Ellers går tankene til Norge idag ettersom det er minnemarkering etter 22. juli. Jeg var i USA ogsaa i fjor naar det ufattelige skjedde i Norge. Her har massemediene i det siste vært preget av en annen tragedie, nemlig skytingen paa en kino i Colorado, hvor 12 doede. Forferdelige greier.

Jeg legger ved et par bilder fra gårsdagens besøk på Kennedy museet.

Yngve Saetre

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Publisert av: Yngve Sætre | juli 20, 2012

Studiebrev fra Harvard 12/12


Boston, Cambridge, 19.07.12.

Idag hadde jeg midterm eksamen i Corporate Governance. Den varte bare 1 time og 15 minutter, men spørsmålene var likevel forholdsvis omfattende. Vi får tilbake eksamen allerede på tirsdag, og det blir spennende å få resultatet fra min første eksamen her på Harvard Summer School.

Forøvrig har det vært lange dager på biblioteket i det siste, så det er derfor noen dager siden jeg har skrevet noe her på bloggen. Jeg har brukt ganske mye tid komparativ politikk, og Mexico har vært et av temaene den siste uken. Her er noen tanker rundt utsiktene til demokrati i Mexico basert på to artikler i henholdsvis The Washington Post og The Economist:

What are the prospects for Mexico’s new democracy?

The election on July 1 resulted in a comeback for the PRI (Institutional Revolutionary Party)/ green party that won 38, 2 percent of the votes. According to The Economist the president elect “looks and sound like a modernizer, but plenty of old-fashioned party dinosaurs lurk around him”. The two articles describe a challenging future for the new president.

The big problem for Mexico seems to be the trust gap described in the article from The Washington Post.  The people have weak level of confidence in public institutions, and there is also low trust between citizens. Mexico is near the bottom in a ranking of how much trust the citizens have in others. In a poll only 6 percent said they had high trust in the police and only 20 percent had trust in their co-workers and classmates.

If think the trust gap is a huge problem for the democracy in Mexico. Democracy is dependent on a certain amount of trust from citizen to institutions, from institutions to citizens, between institutions and between citizens. I think a lack of this trust will undermine the whole democracy.

Democracy is based on the citizens giving away some power to democratic institutions, but to make the system healthy they need to trust that the institutions will use this power in a good and fair way. Also economic development is based on a certain degree of trust between citizens and citizens/ institutions. This is essential to establish good business conditions and solid property rights. Why invest in a property or business if you don’t trust that your fellow citizens and institutions will respect your ownership?

If Mexico is not able to strengthen the trust between people, and between people and institutions, I think the democracy in Mexico is going into difficult times. Establishing such trust is a long process, but a good start is to fight crime and to establish trust in the police, the institutions and the elections. To do that the police must fight the criminals – instead of cooperating with them, and the cheating in the elections must stop.

Yngve Saetre

Publisert av: Yngve Sætre | juli 15, 2012

Studiebrev fra Harvard 11/12


Boston, Cambridge, 14.07.12.

En uke til er gått her på Harvard Summer School. I dag er det tre uker siden jeg kom hit, og fire uker er igjen av oppholdet. I uken som gikk hadde jeg en presentasjon og en innlevering. Etter at essayet var levert i går, ble det en tur til Boston sentrum i går ettermiddag for litt avkobling fra bøkene.

I går var egentlig første gangen jeg var nede i Boston sentrum. Det minte meg litt om Minneapolis ved første øyekast. Rent og pent og fine bygninger, med en ganske stor park sentralt plassert i sentrum.

Ellers er varmen her nesten litt i overkant om dagen. Det er ikke aircondition på rommet mitt, så der oppholder jeg meg ganske lite. Biblioteket blir derfor det naturlige valget.

Legger ved et par bilder fra Boston.

Yngve Sætre

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Publisert av: Yngve Sætre | juli 13, 2012

Studiebrev fra Harvard 10/12


Boston, Cambridge, 12.07.12.

I dag hadde jeg presentasjon for klassen i komparativ politikk. Temaet var «Political Economy of Development». Uten tvil et både viktig og stort tema. Det var to av oss som skulle redegjøre for dette temaet på totalt 15 minutter.

Min del av presentasjonen var basert på to artikler om temaet, nærmere bestemt «Economic backwardness» av Alexander Gerschenkron og «When things fell apart» av Robert Bates.

Her er innlegget jeg holdt for klassen:

Economic Backwardness by Alexander Gerschenkron

I think the main point in the article is that Gerschenkron see economic development as a way to prevent revolutions.  If you don’t have development it could lead to dictatorship and war.

One of the questions from the article is what Germany and Russia did to catch up the development in Britain. I think the answer is that the banks had a very important role in Germany. The banks provided short term and long term capital and worked closely with the industry.

In Russia the state was important in the economic progress, and this was initiated by military events. This also leaded to corruption but the process can still be described as a success.

When it comes to the question of what we can learn from Gerschenkron and Dos Santos I think that Gerschenkron has a strong belief in the potential for economic development, but he emphasize that certain obstacles must be removed before it can happen.

He also says that it easier to grow if you can borrow technologies from developed countries. He believes that countries can learn from each other and interact in a positive way. I think this is a fundamentally different view than Dos Santos, which describe the same process as exploitation and dependence.

Because Gerschenkron see development as a way to prevent war, he also points out that developed countries have interest in helping backward countries.

A very important part of Gerschenkrons article is that each country must find their own way to development, and that there are great differences in speed and character.

He also says that small challenges does not produce any response, the challenge must be great before you get the response that can lead to development.

In a way he says that when you are at the bottom and there is no alternative – you have the best chances for success.

I think the weak part of Gerschenkrons article is that he does not mention property rights, education and political stability which I think are important factors for economic development. 

When things fell apart by Robert Bates

Bates defines antigrowth as more or less the same thing as control regimes.  They have a closed economy, distortion of prices and regulation of industries and markets.

In his article Bates describes in a very good way how a control regimes developes.

At first the government gets close ties with the urban industry, at the expense of agriculture.  It then forbids other political parties so that the majority – which is the farmers – loose their power. Then the government overvalue it’s currency which harms the farmers and the export industry. This leads to a trade deficit for the country. Then they have to regulate imports which leads to a big bureaucracy.

By this time the country is in a bad vicious circle, but the government uses this situation to take advantage of the high currency to reward their family and friends.

I think that Bates basically describes a rotten and undemocratic system – which is wasting a lot of resources.

I think that an important point in the article is that democracy and economic growth are linked together. Bates describes a system where the government removes the opposition so it can develop a control regime. In other words: they remove democracy and by that also the opportunity to economic development.

Another key point in the Bates article is that the antigrowth countries are not poor because they lack the resources, or because they are exploited or don’t have any institutions.

I think what Bates is saying is that government in these countries are choosing themselves to stay that way. They deliberately and with their eyes open choose to become and stay a control regime.  And the reason for this is that the elite want resources of income for themselves. And that is really the total opposite of the idea with democracy.

Yngve Saetre

Publisert av: Yngve Sætre | juli 11, 2012

Studiebrev fra Harvard 09/12


Boston, Cambridge, 10.07.12.

Jeg fulgte ekstra godt med på forelesningen i komparativ politikk idag. Temaet var nemlig demokratiet i Storbritania, med fokus på Margaret Thatcher. Ifølge foreleseren var det særlig tre sentrale elementer ved Thatcher sin politikk.

På engelsk og i stikkordsform var det som følger: Attacking labor unions, privatization, from «Keynesianism» to «monetarism». Jeg vil anta at det er flere syn på hva som var det sentrale ved «Thatcherismen», men i denne omgang ble det ikke anledning til å dykke dypere ned i det. Det får jeg ta ved en senere anledning.

Under er et klipp av «The iron lady» i aksjon. Det ble faktisk vist under forelesningen i dag. Til stor interesse for både undertegnede samt de øvrige studenter!

 

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Over er et bilde fra den omtalte forelesningen.

Yngve Sætre

Publisert av: Yngve Sætre | juli 8, 2012

Studiebrev fra Harvard 08/12


Boston, Cambridge, 07.07.12.

En uke til er gått her på Harvard Summer School. På onsdag var det 4. Juli, USA sin nasjonaldag. Det ble imidlertid lite feiring av den da jeg var forkjølet. Dessuten kom det et uvær over Boston som gjorde at det tradisjonelle fyrverkeriet ble avlyst/utsatt.

Ellers bruker jeg tiden til å skrive en «midterm» oppgave i komparativ politik, som skal leveres på fredag. Jeg forbereder også en presentasjon jeg skal ha i det samme faget på torsdag.

Uken som kommer blir derfor travel. Dagene blir derfor hovedsakelig brukt på Widener biblioteket, og på Harward Law School, hvor det også er et stort bibliotek med lesesal og datasal.

Jeg ser frem til min tredje uke her i idylliske Cambridge.

Yngve Sætre

Her er et bilde av Widener biblioteket på Harvard.

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Publisert av: Yngve Sætre | juli 6, 2012

Studiebrev fra Harvard 07/12


Boston, Cambridge, 05.07.12.

En liten digresjon om vær og vind i dag: Her i Cambridge er det for tiden meget godt og varmt. Aircondition er derfor nødvendig, men amerikanerne har (etter mitt syn) en tendens til overdreven bruk av dette ellers nyttige virkemiddelet.

Dette gir seg utslag i at det er hensiktsmessig å ta på seg ekstra klær når man skal inn et sted, og ta av seg klær når man skal ut. Dette er for meg litt ulogisk (og det er såvidt jeg husker det motsatte av det vi pleier å gjøre i Norge). Men også ulogiske situasjoner må håndteres, og følgelig har jeg med meg godt med varme klær når jeg skal på forelesning, selv om det ute er stekende  sol og varmt som i ei badstue.

Til tross for dette har jeg pådratt meg en forkjølelse. Det er jeg ikke alene om. På forelesning her om dagen virket det som hele klassen hostet og harket synkront.

Jan P. Syse var en meget fornuftig mann som snakket varmt om verdien av moderasjon. Dette tidløse temaet er aktuelt i mange sammenhenger, og kanskje de som styrer  aircondition anleggene her på Harvard med fordel kunne lyttet litt til Syses råd om moderasjon?

Det ovenstående var et lite hjertesukk over en meget liten sak i den store sammenhengen. Likevel minte den meg om betydningen av moderasjon, og det i seg selv er ikke betydningsløst.

Forøvrig har jeg det flott her på Harvard, og forkjølelsen er iferd med å slippe taket.

Yngve Sætre

Publisert av: Yngve Sætre | juli 4, 2012

Studiebrev fra Harvard 06/12


Boston, Cambridge, 03.07.12.

Idag har ett av temaene i komparativ politikk vaert valg av demokratiform for nye demokratier. Dette basert paa en interessant artikkel ved navn «Constitutional Choices for New Democracies» av Arend Lijphart. Artikkelen konkluderer med at parlamentarisme kombinert med proporsjonal representasjon er det beste styresettet for nye demokratier. Dette er identisk med det norske styresettet.

Lijphart sin ellers gode artikkel belyser ikke alle sidene ved parlamentarisme like grundig, og det har jeg gjort meg noen tanker rundt:

Lijphart concludes relatively clear that the combination of proportional representation with parliamentarism is the most attractive design for constructing a democracy. He’s main argument is that this model «almost invariably post the best records, particularly with respect to representation, protection of minority interests, voter participation, and control of unemployment» (Lijphart, Constitutional Choices p. 11).

Lijpharts conclusion is based largely on empirical findings that is hard to criticize. But I believe that there are at least three other factors than those already mentioned that strenghtens the combination of proportional representation with parliamentarism.

1. Political debate: Parliamentarism means basically that the government needs support in the parliament at all times, but generally it does not need to be a steady constellation of support. The goverment can get support from different political parties depending on the situation. This gives dynamic to the political prosess, and will to a larger degree include the opposition in the political debate. I believe that this also creates a more vibrant and open political debate, and this could be a contributing factor to the high vote participation in these systems. In constructing a democracy a broad political debate that includes both position and opposition should be a positive factor.

2. Balance: When you to a larger degree include the opposition in the political prosess you will get more political balance between political parties. You will also probably get more political compromises that to a larger degree takes into account the rights of minorities and underrepresented groups. I think that different political parties – when working together -often can come up with solutions that are more moderate, balanced and solid than that of a single political party.

3. Long term policy: When you have a more vibrant political debate with more inclusion of the opposition in the political prosess the entire political system will get more ownership to the political decisions. This makes it more difficult to depart from these decisions later, and it makes it easier to make decisions based on long term policy.

Of course the counter – argument to this is that the combination of proportional representation with parliamentarism could lead to a sometimes chaotic and ineffective government, and that it is ultimately better with a strong president that can make effective decisions. I think this argument is largely based on a believe that more effective decisions will lead to an advantage in economic policy making. Lijphart claims that this is not the case. In fact he says that proporsional representative combined with parliamentarism performs slightly better in terms of economic policy making (Lijphart, Constitutional Choices p. 10).

As a conclusion I will say that in constructing a democracy proporsional representative combined with parliamentarism is superior. But this should not undermine existing democracies of other models in other countries. Culture, tradition and other factors can be of vital importance for their continuing legitimacy.

Yngve Saetre

Publisert av: Yngve Sætre | juli 3, 2012

Studiebrev fra Harvard 05/12


Boston, Cambridge, 02.07.12.

Idag har jeg arbeidet med komparativ politikk. Blant pensum er en artikkel av Samuel P. Huntington som heter «The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order». Foroevrig en voldsom tittel. Det jeg reagerte mest paa i artikkelen var likevel en paastand om at oekt handel og globalisering ikke reduserer kriger og konflikter i verden.

Vi har et debattforum paa nett her paa Harvard hvor vi blir oppfordret til aa skrive kommentarer til artikler og temaer innen pensum, og svare paa problemstillinger fra foreleseren. Jeg sendte inn et innlegg om nettopp Huntingtons artikkel, og et utdrag av det jeg skrev foelger her:

«I believe that trade and globalization spread knowledge between nations, and strenghtens bonds between businesses, governments, cultures and people. These factors will contribute to a reduction in conflicts between people and nations. Globalization brings people together and reduces the importance of national boarders.

Trade between countries – that uses the benefits of comparative economic advantages – also makes countries dependent on each other to get basic articles like food and clothes. I believe that this also will contribute to a reduction in conflicts as long as there are some basic common rules for global trade. You simply don’t want to attack someone you are dependent on.

Huntington wrote his article in 1996. I think it is correct to say that there has been an increase in trade and globalization in the last twenty years or so. According to the Unites Nations there has been a decrease in the number of wars in the world by 40 % from 1990 until 2007. This fact do not support Huntingtons view, even if there certainly are other strong factors than trade that have contributed to the reduced number of wars.

I will also mention the European Union in this matter. The European Union is a partnership between 27 European countries. The starting point of the Union was the establishing of the common market with The Treaty of Rome in 1957. The basic idea behind the European Union is that free trade and common rules will make countries dependent on each other and this will avoid conflicts. This has been a succesful formula for over half a century.»

Yngve Saetre

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